Theatre of ancient Greece
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For other uses of
"Greek Theatre", see Greek
theatre (disambiguation).
Theatre mask, 1st century BC
The theatre
of Ancient Greece, or ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece between 550 BC and 220 BC.
The city-state of Athens, which became a significant cultural,
political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486
BC), and thesatyr play were
the three dramatic genres to
emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies
in order to promote a common cultural identity. Western theatre originated
in Athens and its drama has had a significant and sustained impact on Western culture as a whole.
Etymology
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia),
from which the word "tragedy" is derived,
is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or
"goat" and ᾠδή (ode) meaning
"song", from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing".[1] This etymology indicates a link
with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to
know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for
tragedy and comedy. [2]
Origins
Martin Litchfield
West speculates that early studies in Greek religion and theatre, which are
inter-related, especially the Orphic Mysteries, was heavily influenced by Central Asian shamanistic practices. A large number of
Orphic graffiti unearthed in Olbia seem to testify that the colony was
one major point of contact.[3] Eli Rozik[4] points out that the shaman, as
such, is seen as a prototypical actor influencing the rituals of early Greek
theatre.[5]
Panoramic view of the theatre at Epidaurus.
Greek tragedy as we
know it was created in Athens some years before 532 BC, when Thespis was the earliest recorded actor.
Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held at Athens, he was the exarchon,
or leader,[6] of the dithyrambs performed in and around
Attica, especially at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis' time the dithyramb had
evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric
choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narrative,
ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Father
of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes
listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the
statesman Solon, for example, is credited with creating
poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances
ofHomer's epics by rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior
to 534 BC.[7] Thus, Thespis's true
contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name has been immortalized as
a common term for performer—a "thespian."
The dramatic
performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the
creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly to
foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by Cleisthenes). The festival was created roughly
around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, we do know
the names of three competitors besides Thespis: Choerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus. Each is credited with different
innovations in the field.
More is known about
Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced
tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician
Women and Alcestis. He was the first poet we know of to
use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493-2,
chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the
Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep
grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when
Phrynichus wrote a play entitled “The Fall of Miletus” and produced it, the
whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for
bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally, and forbade the
performance of that play forever."[8] He is also thought to be the
first to use female characters (though not female performers).[9]
Until the Hellenistic period,
all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only
once, so that today we primarily have the pieces that were still remembered
well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became
fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the
Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what
survived from this period).
New inventions during the Classical Period
After the Great
Destruction of Athens by
the Persian Empire in
480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and
an even more major part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is
normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The
centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place once in winter and once
in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus.
Each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic, burlesque version of a mythological
subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC, each playwright also
submitted a comedy.[10] Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor, and
that Sophocles introduced the third.
Apparently the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on
what is known about Greek theatre.[11]
Tragedy and comedy were
viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the
two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological
subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.
Hellenistic period
The power of Athens
declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans.
From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although
its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre
continued into the Hellenistic period
(the period followingAlexander the Great's
conquests in the fourth century BC). However, the primary Hellenistic
theatrical form was not tragedy but 'New Comedy', comic
episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from
the period is Menander. One of New
Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an
influence that can be seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence.
Characteristics of
the buildings
The Ancient Theatre of Delphi.
The plays had a
chorus from 12 to 15[12] people, who performed the
plays in verse accompanied by music, beginning in the morning and lasting until
the evening. The performance space was a simple circular space, the orchestra,
where the chorus danced and sang. The orchestra, which had an average diameter
of 78 feet, was situated on a flattened terrace at the foot of a hill, the
slope of which produced a natural theatron, literally
"watching place". Later, the term "theater" came to be
applied to the whole area of theatron, orchestra, and skené. The choregos was the head chorus member
who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters
of a play.
A drawing of an ancient theatre. Terms are in Greek language andLatin letters.
The theatres were
originally built on a very large scale to accommodate the large number of
people on stage, as well as the large number of people in the audience, up to
fourteen thousand. Mathematics played a large role in the construction of these
theatres, as their designers had to be able to create acoustics in them such that the actors'
voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of
seats. The Greeks' understanding of acoustics compares very favourably with the
current state of the art, as even with the invention of microphones, there are
very few modern large theatres that have truly good acoustics. The first seats
in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but
around 499 BC the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill
to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the
"prohedria" and reserved for priests and a few most respected citizens.
In 465 BC, the
playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind
the orchestra, which also served as an area where actors could change their
costumes. It was known as the skênê (from
which the word "scene"
derives). The death of a character was always heard behind the skênê,
for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience.[citation needed] Though
there is scholarly argument that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage
primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or
sensitivity of the audience. [13] In 425 BC a stone scene wall,
called a paraskenia, became a common supplement to skênê in
the theatres. A paraskenia was a long wall with projecting sides, which may
have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia was the
proskenion. The proskenion ("in front of the scene") was beautiful,
and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theatres also
had tall arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi, through which actors and chorus
members entered and exited the orchestra. By the end of the 5th century BC,
around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the skênê, the back wall,
was two stories high. The upper story was called the episkenion. Some theatres
also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion.
Scenic elements
There were several
scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:
·
trap doors, or similar openings in the ground
to lift people onto the stage
·
Thyromata, more complex pictures built into the second-level
scene (3rd level from ground)
·
Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolizing fertility in honour of Dionysus.
Masks
Tragic Comic Masks Hadrian's Villa mosaic.
Masks and ritual
The Ancient Greek
term for a mask is prosopon (lit.,
"face"),[14] and was a significant element
in the worship of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial rites and
celebrations. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the
5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree
with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the Pronomos vase,[15] which depicts actors preparing
for a Satyr play.[16] No physical evidence remains
available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered
permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated to the altar of Dionysus after
performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time
of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the
iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.[17]
Masks were also made
for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a
commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve
or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because
they are considered to be representing one character.
Mask details
Illustrations of
theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the
entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the
mouth, as well as an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on
the actors in performance; they are most often shown being handled by the
actors before or after a performance, that liminal space between the audience
and the stage, between myth and reality.[16] This demonstrates the way in
which the mask was to ‘melt’ into the face and allow the actor to vanish into
the role.[18] Effectively, the mask
transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore,
performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the
theatrical character.
Bronze statue of a Greek actor. The half-mask over the eyes and nose
identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female
garments, following the Greek custom of men playing the roles of women. 150-100
BCE.
The mask-makers were
called skeuopoios or “maker of the properties,” thus
suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks
were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened
linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair.[19] Due to the visual restrictions
imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to
co-orientate and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were
covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The
mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth to be seen during
performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea
that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s.[16] Greek mask-maker, Thanos
Vovolis, suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus
enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased
energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor
into his character.[20]
Mask functions
In a large open-air
theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, the classical masks were able to bring
the characters' face closer to the audience, especially since they had
intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.[20] They enabled an actor to
appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience
from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the
audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a
change in a particular character’s appearance, e.g. Oedipus after blinding
himself.[21] Unique masks were also created
for specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus’ Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides’ The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks
created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced
persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a
heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2-3 actors
were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions
from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed
them to play female characters.
Other costume details
The actors in these
plays that had tragic roles wore boots called cothurni that
elevated them above the other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a
thin soled shoe called a sock. For this reason,
dramatic art is sometimes alluded to as “Sock and Buskin.”
When playing female
roles, the male actors donned a “prosterneda” (a wooden structure in front of
the chest, to imitate female breasts) and “progastreda” in front of the belly.[citation needed]
Melpomene is the muse of
tragedy and is often depicted holding the tragic mask and wearing cothurni. Thalia is the muse of comedy and is
similarly associated with the mask of comedy and the comedic "socks".
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